Jamaica’s Pimento (Allspice) Industry

Origins and Early Cultivation of Pimento (Allspice)

Jamaica’s pimento, known globally as allspice (Pimenta dioica), is indigenous to the Caribbean and Central America. Long before European contact, the indigenous Taíno and other Amerindian peoples used pimento berries and wood for both culinary and medicinal purposes. They would season and preserve meats with the spice – practices that formed the foundation of Jamaica’s famous jerk cuisine

Early Spanish explorers encountered pimento in Jamaica in the early 16th century; indeed, Christopher Columbus “discovered” allspice in Jamaica on his second voyage (1494) and brought it back to Europe, mistakenly believing it to be a type of pepper. This is reflected in the spice’s Spanish name pimienta (pepper) and later botanical name Pimenta, as well as the English moniker “Jamaica pepper.” By the 1500s, Spanish botanists had recorded the plant, noting its aromatic qualities. The Maya peoples were also known to use allspice as an embalming agent and to flavor chocolate, highlighting the spice’s wide range of early uses.

European demand for spices was high in this era, and allspice gradually entered the Old World spice trade as a New World commodity. However, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries Asian spices like black pepper and clove still dominated European markets. Allspice began gaining recognition for its unique flavor — described as a combination of clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, and pepper — and by 1621 the British had dubbed it “allspice” for its all-in-one aroma.

Still, early cultivation of pimento outside its native area was limited.

Spanish efforts to cultivate allspice in their colonies (such as a 1583 royal decree to plant spices including “pepper and allspice” in the Americas) met with mixed success. It wasn’t until later that the plant was established as a significant crop in Jamaica under British colonial rule.

Development in the Colonial Era

Under British colonial influence (starting in 1655, when England took Jamaica from Spain), pimento eventually became an important export crop, though it always ranked behind staples like sugar and coffee. Jamaica proved to have ideal conditions for pimento trees – limestone hills and tropical climate – and by the 18th century the island was the world’s primary source of allspice. Unlike sugar estates, pimento was typically not grown on large plantations with intensive cultivation; instead it often grew wild or semi-wild on “pimento walks” in the hilly interior, and both enslaved and free small farmers harvested the berries. Historical records indicate that by 1755 Jamaica was exporting about 251 tons of pimento annually – a substantial quantity for a spice at that time. British records from the late 1700s note that allspice from Jamaica was “shipped to England, and from there distributed to Germany, Italy, the Levant and Turkey,” where it was greatly valued as a food seasoning. Allspice had also proven useful as a preservative (for example, British sailors used pimento berries to cure and preserve meat on long voyages), increasing its strategic importance.

By the 19th century, Jamaica had something of a monopoly on allspice. The British actively guarded this advantage. To prevent other colonies or countries from establishing their own allspice industries, exports of live pimento seedlings from Jamaica were banned in 1882. (This ban came after a period in the mid-1800s when demand for pimento wood for craft uses led to the export of countless young trees, threatening Jamaica’s pimento groves.)

In fact, pimento wood had become a fashionable material in Europe and North America – umbrellas and walking sticks made from Jamaican pimento wood were all the rage in the late 1800s, resulting in wanton cutting of saplings. A lecture at the University of the West Indies recorded that only strict controls enacted in 1882 saved the young pimento trees from being wiped out. Retired agronomist John Gayle notes that “thousands of saplings were exported for those purposes between 1876 and 1930, a trade which nearly ruined the industry”, until colonial authorities stepped in. This episode underscores how valuable pimento had become – not only the berries, but the wood and leaves as well. Jamaicans also found local uses for the durable pimento wood in construction (fence posts, house posts) and for the island’s signature jerk cooking: the wood’s slow-burning, fragrant smoke is essential for authentic jerk meats.

Throughout the colonial era, pimento remained largely a smallholder crop. After the abolition of slavery (1834–1838), many freed Jamaicans established themselves on marginal hillside lands and continued to cultivate pimento trees, which could thrive on rocky limestone terrains unsuitable for sugar.

This gave rise to a saying that pimento was a “manna crop” for peasants – requiring minimal input while the trees naturally reseeded and bore fruit seasonally. It was often called the “Cinderella” of Jamaican agriculture – an old, oft-neglected industry that nevertheless provided steady if modest earnings.

By the early 20th century, Jamaica was firmly known worldwide for allspice.

However, the industry also faced challenges. For example, a devastating outbreak of “myrtle rust” disease in 1934 attacked pimento trees (a member of the myrtle family), destroying Jamaica’s pimento leaf oil industry at the time. Pimento leaf oil – distilled from the leaves – had been a valuable by-product, so this was a significant blow. The industry rebounded in later years, but the episode highlighted the vulnerability of a crop reliant on wild tree populations and the need for scientific attention to pests and diseases.

Post-Colonial Evolution and Export Expansion

Jamaica’s independence in 1962 did not immediately change the fundamentals of the pimento trade – it remained an important export commodity, albeit one of relatively small economic weight compared to bauxite, sugar, bananas, and tourism. Through the 20th century, Jamaica consistently led the world in allspice production. Even as other countries (notably Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras) cultivated allspice, Jamaica was long reputed to have the best quality berries, with the highest oil content and aromatic potency.

By the late 20th century, Jamaica still likely accounted for the majority of global allspice exports. One analysis notes that “Jamaica is currently the largest exporter of allspice, with 70%” of world trade in allspice, followed (at a distance) by Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Brazil, and Belize. The main importing markets have traditionally been the United States and Europe (especially the UK and Germany), where allspice is used in processed foods, sausages, baked goods, and pickling spices, as well as in Caribbean diaspora communities for cooking.

Over time, the Jamaican government took a role in regulating and supporting the pimento industry. A Pimento Factory and Growers’ Association was formed mid-century, and later the commodity came under the purview of the Ministry of Agriculture’s Export Division. For decades, the Export Division of the ministry handled purchasing, quality control, and exporting of pimento on behalf of farmers. This system meant the government effectively set a farmgate price and marketed the crop internationally – a structure similar to boards for coffee and cocoa. While this helped maintain quality standards (Jamaican allspice developed a premium reputation), it also sometimes led to farmer dissatisfaction with prices. By the 2000s, pimento farmers were voicing concerns that they were not receiving their fair share of the profits. In the post-colonial era, the industry also saw efforts at modernization: research into shorter, high-yielding tree varieties (through UWI’s biotech division) and methods for vegetative propagation were pursued to make pimento orchards more manageable and productive.

Traditionally, pimento trees can grow 30-50ft (9–15 meters) tall and are dioecious (separate male and female trees), which complicates cultivation since only female trees bear fruit. Research and extension programs have aimed to help farmers identify male seedlings and adopt spacing, pruning, and harvesting techniques to improve yields. Despite these efforts, much of Jamaica’s pimento production into the 21st century remained based on older trees scattered in the wild or in small orchards.

Throughout the 20th century and into the 2000s, Jamaica’s pimento industry supplied not just whole dried berries for export, but also value-added products. Pimento leaf oil (steam-distilled from leaves and twigs) became a niche export used in the flavor and fragrance industries. Pimento berry oil and oleoresin are used in foods and cosmetics. Locally, products such as pimento dram liqueur, jerk seasonings, and other spice blends added value to the raw spice. By the mid-2000s, Jamaica’s pimento industry was earning roughly US$5 million annually from exports of berries, oils, and related products. While not a huge sum at the national level, this income was important for rural communities and foreign exchange earnings. Table 1 summarizes some historical and modern data on Jamaica’s pimento exports:

As Table 1 suggests, the overall scale of the pimento industry has always been modest next to Jamaica’s giant industries. For example, US$5 million in export value is only a fraction of a percent of Jamaica’s GDP. Yet pimento has maintained outsized cultural and historical significance, being one of Jamaica’s oldest export crops (exported since at least the 1600s) and a product synonymous with Jamaican identity abroad.

Domestic Uses and Cultural Significance

While export has been the economic driver, pimento’s domestic importance in Jamaica cannot be overlooked. The spice is a cornerstone of Jamaican cuisine: pimento berries (whole or ground) are key to the island’s famous jerk seasoning, spice rubs, and marinades, and they add warm flavor to stews, sauces, and baked goods. Around Christmastime, Jamaicans boil pimento in preparing traditional sorrel drink and use it to season holiday hams. Pimento leaves and berries are also used in bush teas and home remedies (for colds, menstrual cramps, indigestion, etc., reflecting a long folk medicine tradition).

Culturally, the practice of jerking meats – originated by the Taíno and Maroons – relies on pimento wood: green pimento wood, along with pimento leaves and berries, is burned to smoke meats, imparting a distinct flavor. This has made pimento trees doubly valuable locally, sometimes to the detriment of the berry harvest (as will be seen below). Overall, pimento is deeply woven into Jamaica’s social fabric: it is one of the island’s “heritage spices,” and thousands of small farmers continue the tradition of harvesting pimento in the late summer (August–September, when berries are ripe) and sun-drying them on concrete “barbecues” as was done for generations.

Social and Political Impacts across Eras

Over the centuries, the pimento industry has had various social and political impacts on Jamaica. During slavery and post-emancipation, pimento offered a livelihood for small cultivators. Unlike sugar or banana, pimento could be tended by independent peasant farmers, including formerly enslaved people in the 1800s who established settlements in central Jamaica. This helped foster a class of small landowners and a more diverse agricultural base in rural parishes. Socially, whole communities in pimento-growing regions (such as sections of St. Elizabeth, Trelawny, St. Ann, and Manchester) have depended on the pimento harvest as a seasonal source of cash income. Harvesting is labor-intensive – requiring workers to climb trees to “break” branches, and others (often women and children traditionally) to pick off the berries and sort them. This created annual employment for rural laborers.

However, in recent years a shortage of agricultural labor has become a serious issue – community elders note that “there is pimento falling off trees all over…but you can’t find people to pick it”, as younger generations migrate to cities or find less arduous work.

Politically, the colonial government intervened at times to protect the pimento industry (e.g. the 1882 sapling export ban mentioned earlier). More recently, Jamaican governments have implemented policies to sustain the sector. In the 1970s–1990s period, pimento exports were largely handled by the state’s Export Division, effectively giving government a monopsony (single-buyer) power over pricing. This system kept quality high but often fixed farmgate prices relatively low. In the 2010s, the government moved to liberalize and modernize commodity marketing. In 2018 the Jamaica Agricultural Commodities Regulatory Authority (JACRA) was established, merging several commodity boards (for coffee, cocoa, spices, etc.) under one agency. JACRA became the body licensing spice buyers, exporters and setting standards for pimento. However, JACRA also effectively continued the practice of setting a benchmark price. Tensions arose as farmers complained the official price was too low to make pimento farming worthwhile.

In 2024, one pimento farmer wrote that JACRA was paying J$450 per pound of dried pimento (approximately US$3 per kg), which he called “oppressive,” noting that Jamaican allspice retailing in the UK would fetch many times that value. He warned that if farmers keep being short-changed, “more and more farmers will cease growing and reaping pimento”, leading Jamaica to eventually import allspice. Indeed, that scenario had already begun – by 2017 Jamaica had to import pimento for the first time in history from Central America, due to local shortages (a startling development for the “home of allspice”). This spurred the government to increase support. The Ministry of Agriculture launched a Pimento Rehabilitation Programme in the late 2010s, including: distribution of new seedlings to growers, rehabilitating old pimento trees, providing tools like drying platforms, and tackling pests (one project targeted the “pimento gall ant” pest). The government also approved aggressive farmgate price increases – raising the price paid to farmers by 160% over five years (from J$50.71 to J$132.28 per kg, i.e. from about J$23 to J$60 per pound) to incentivize production. These interventions underscore the political recognition of pimento’s importance to rural economies and the Jamaican brand, even if its macro-economic contribution is small.

The Last Five Years: Trends, Challenges and Transformation (2018–2025)

In the past five years, Jamaica’s pimento industry has faced significant shifts and challenges, prompting new strategies and a search for sustainability. Production has been on a downward trend, due in part to aging trees, limited replanting, and labor scarcity. As noted, by 2017–2018 the country could not meet both export and domestic demand, leading to shortfalls. Weather extremes and climate events have compounded the problem: in 2020–2022 Jamaica experienced severe droughts followed by heavy rains, which stressed pimento trees, and in 2024 Hurricane Beryl struck major pimento-growing parishes. The combined effect was a sharp drop in output. A leading local spice manufacturer, Spur Tree Spices Ltd., reported in late 2024 that “the output of pimento has been trending downwards for years,” and after the drought, floods, and hurricane, prices jumped from J$550 to J$750 per pound (a ~36% increase) due to scarcity. Spur Tree, which uses ~25,000 lbs of allspice annually in its sauces and seasonings, said it could not secure enough raw pimento to fulfill export orders. This illustrates a new dynamic: local agri-businesses are now significant consumers of pimento (for value-added products), competing with exporters for supply when the crop is short. In 2024, shortages of inputs like pimento and scotch bonnet pepper were directly limiting export manufacturing in Jamaica’s food sector.

Jamaica’s share of the international allspice market has also shifted in recent years. Historically the dominant exporter, Jamaica has seen other countries increase their market presence. Honduras and Guatemala have ramped up production and exports of allspice, benefiting from lower production costs and new orchards. By 2018 Honduras had become the leading supplier of allspice to the U.S. market, accounting for about 37% of U.S. imports by volume (roughly 0.53 million kg in 2018). Guatemala was second, and Jamaica – once the #3 supplier to the U.S. – had slipped in rank. Jamaican exports to the U.S. peaked in 2016 at 438,568 kg but then declined sharply. By 2018, Jamaican-origin allspice made up only about 8% of U.S. import volume (roughly 120–130 thousand kg). Notably, China emerged as a surprising new player, exporting 131,421 kg of allspice to the U.S. in 2018 (from virtually zero a few years prior). This suggests that even non-traditional producers have entered the niche, possibly through greenhouse cultivation or re-export. Meanwhile Mexico, which has long produced allspice in its southern states, continues to be a strong competitor – a recent study noted Mexico is the largest exporter within the allspice’s native Mesoamerican range and “poses serious competition” regionally.

One positive aspect for Jamaica is that its allspice still commands a premium price internationally due to reputed quality. In the U.S. market, Jamaican allspice berries were selling at ~US$5.69 per kg, significantly higher than the average import price (~$3.13/kg). Importers pay more for Jamaica’s product because of its higher oil content and potent flavor. However, that premium has not fully translated into prosperity for farmers. A 2024 value-chain analysis revealed that pimento (and ginger and turmeric) farmers in Jamaica capture less than 5% of the final consumer price of spice products. Most of the value is taken by traders, processors, and exporters. The study found a few large “aggregators” purchase the bulk of spices from farmers – in the case of pimento, about 50% of farmers’ output is sold to JACRA (or its agents) and much of the rest to local processors. There are about 25 processing companies involved in spices, ranging from seasoning makers to essential oil distillers. These processors often face irregular supply and sometimes resort to importing allspice to fill gaps. Indeed, the value-chain report noted that processors “supplement these gaps with imports in dry or semi-processed form at prices significantly above local prices”. This situation has galvanized efforts to better organize and support farmers, so they can increase production and get a larger share of the export value.

Several initiatives in the last five years aim to revitalize the pimento industry. One is the Food for Progress Jamaica Spices Project (2018–2023), funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which targets ginger, turmeric, and pimento. This project spans 2,260 hectares and seeks to boost spice exports to US$14.5 million (within a broader goal of $20+ million in sales) by training 7,500 farmers (including women and youth), improving planting material, and raising yields by 50%. It has facilitated value-chain studies and farmer field schools. Another thrust has been financial support and credit: in 2022–2023 the Jamaican government announced increased financing options for spice farmers, recognizing that many are smallholders with limited cash flow to invest in new trees or irrigation (this was reported under a “Tripartite Value Chain Financing” arrangement for spices). JACRA itself, despite criticisms, has been active in distributing free pimento seedlings in hard-hit areas; for example, in 2021 JACRA distributed hundreds of seedlings in St. Thomas to help re-establish orchards after losses to disease and storms. These efforts indicate an understanding that without replanting, Jamaica’s pimento tree stock (some of which are decades old) will continue to decline.

The major players in Jamaica’s pimento industry today include the Pimento Growers Association (which advocates for farmers’ interests and conservation of pimento trees), the regulatory body JACRA, and private sector companies like Spur Tree Spices, Walkerswood Caribbean Foods, GraceKennedy (which uses pimento in food products), and essential oil distillers producing pimento leaf oil. On the global stage, the “major players” are the producing countries – Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico, and Jamaica – and importers/wholesalers in the US and Europe who blend allspice into seasonings or sell it to food manufacturers. Jamaica’s strategy to remain relevant in this competitive landscape appears to be quality over quantity: by emphasizing the superior oil content and organic or “authentic” Jamaican origin, they can market allspice to premium buyers. The downside is that if volumes continue to fall, even a price premium may not sustain the industry for the long term.

Key challenges facing the industry today can be summarized as follows:

Agricultural & Environmental Challenges:

• Climate change impacts – more intense droughts, storms, and unpredictable weather – are stressing pimento trees. Hurricane damage (e.g. Beryl in 2024) uprooted trees and caused widespread fruit loss.
• Pests and diseases remain a threat (e.g. fungal leaf rusts, soil pathogens, and the gall ant).
• There is also an issue of deforestation: pimento trees are sometimes cut illegally for charcoal or sold as firewood for jerk pits. Pimento wood charcoal burns hottest and longest, fetching a high price, which led to warnings that if uncontrolled, “we won’t have any pimento in a very short time”. The government was even urged to classify the pimento tree as an endangered species to protect it from being felled for timber and charcoal.

Economic Challenges:

• Low farmer profitability and labor shortages are undermining production. As noted, farmers get a small share of final value and have struggled with low farmgate prices until recent adjustments. This has led many to neglect or cut down pimento trees (for immediate cash as timber/charcoal) rather than wait for harvests that may barely break even.
• Additionally, an aging farmer population and difficulty attracting young farmers mean fewer people to tend and harvest pimento. In 2024 it was reported that much fruit simply goes unpicked due to lack of labor, even as export demand remains strong.
• The organizational structure – where a few middlemen or a government agency control purchasing – can also reduce competition and price signals for farmers, though reforms are in discussion.

Market Challenges:

• International competition has increased. Countries like Honduras and Guatemala can offer allspice at lower prices (around $2.50–$3 per kg, vs Jamaica’s ~$5+ per kg), appealing to large spice buyers. Jamaica’s export volumes have thus fallen, and maintaining market share is difficult when buyers can blend lower-cost allspice from elsewhere.
• Another market issue is the small scale of Jamaica’s output – global spice companies often want consistent, large shipments, which Jamaica might struggle to supply year-round. However, niche opportunities (such as certified organic allspice, or branded “Jamaica Allspice” for high-end culinary use) could be better leveraged.

Despite these challenges, the pimento industry has shown resilience. In late 2024, JACRA reported that pimento was the second-most damaged crop from Hurricane Beryl (after coffee) but that it was aiding farms with fertilizer and inputs to recover. Industry stakeholders are calling for greater coordination and planning, including possibly developing pimento plantations (modern orchards) to supplement the aging wild tree stands. There is also discussion of value-added processing in Jamaica – for instance, expanding production of pimento oil, or finished spice products – so that more of the value chain benefits stay in Jamaica. Already, products like pimento liqueur and jerk seasoning contribute to the economy, and there is potential to grow these markets.

In summary, the last five years have been a wake-up call: Jamaica’s pimento industry, while historically rich, must adapt to survive. Efforts are underway to replant trees, support farmers, and market Jamaica’s allspice as a premium, uniquely Jamaican product.

Conclusion

From its origins in indigenous cultivation and its “discovery” by Europeans in the 15th century, through colonial expansion as a global spice, to its role today as a niche export, Jamaica’s pimento (allspice) industry encapsulates a remarkable history. It contributed to Jamaica’s economy for over 300 years – never the top export, but always a steady earner and an ambassador of Jamaican flavor to the world. The industry’s economic contribution (around $5 million in exports annually in recent decades) is relatively small, yet it has been vital for rural livelihoods and Jamaica’s cultural identity. Pimento exports have seen ebbs and flows: booming when Jamaica held a near-monopoly, and declining when global competition and local constraints grew. Socially, pimento supported generations of small farmers and became central to Jamaica’s cuisine, while politically it prompted protective laws and modern regulatory approaches.

In the present day, Jamaica’s allspice industry stands at a crossroads. The past five years have brought new pressures – climate shocks, labor issues, competitive headwinds – but also new investments in reviving this heritage crop. Jamaica still produces what is widely regarded as the world’s finest allspice, blessed with a high concentration of essential oils that impart its signature aroma. This is a comparative advantage that, if coupled with sustainable farming and savvy marketing, can secure a future for the industry. The pimento sector is now pursuing that path: replanting orchards, improving value chains, and seeking stronger market positioning. The story of Jamaican pimento is thus one of adaptation and endurance. From the hills of St. Elizabeth and Trelawny where the pimento trees sway, to spice markets in Europe and factories in North America, Jamaica’s “cinderella crop” continues to make its mark – a small berry carrying a legacy of history, spice, and economic hope for the generations to come.