A Historical Overview of Jamaica’s Cacao Industry

Jamaica’s cocoa is internationally recognized as “fine-flavour” cocoa, a distinction awarded by the International Cocoa Organization (ICCO) and the Jamaica Agricultural Commodities Regulatory Authority (JACRA). As one of only eight countries worldwide producing exclusively 100% fine or flavoured cocoa, Jamaica ranks among the world’s most premium cocoa producers. This status reflects not only the island’s long history with cacao but also its ongoing commitment to quality and unique flavour characteristics.

From Spanish Introduction to "Fine-Flavour" Revival

The cacao industry in Jamaica is one of the island’s oldest agricultural enterprises, with roots stretching back to the 17th century. Spanish settlers are credited with introducing cacao around 1638, recognizing Jamaica’s tropical climate and fertile soils as ideal for cultivation. The crop quickly flourished and became widely established across the island.

After England took control of Jamaica in 1655, cacao cultivation continued and expanded, making the island a key supplier to Britain’s burgeoning chocolate market. By the mid-18th century, Jamaican cocoa had earned a reputation for exceptional quality, helping to democratize chocolate consumption in Britain.

Early Introduction and Colonial Era (17th–18th Centuries)

Jamaica’s cacao story begins under Spanish rule, with the first recorded introduction in 1638. The Spanish, familiar with cacao from Mesoamerica—the region stretching from central Mexico through parts of Central America where cacao was first domesticated and used by civilizations like the Maya and Aztecs—found Jamaica’s environment well-suited for the crop. England’s takeover in 1655 did not halt cacao cultivation; by 1670, English planters were actively growing cacao.

By the 1740s, cocoa had become a promising export crop, prized for its rich flavour and used to satisfy Britain’s growing demand for chocolate. Jamaican cocoa was sometimes referred to as “forgotten gold”—a valuable commodity often overshadowed by sugar in the colonial economy. The industry faced setbacks, such as the devastating “blast” of 1727—likely a fungal disease or hurricane—that destroyed many plantations. Despite these challenges, cacao cultivation persisted, and by 1747, Jamaica’s cocoa exports were thriving once more. Under both Spanish and early British stewardship, Jamaica established itself as a reliable source of fine cacao, even as growers learned to navigate the challenges of tropical agriculture.

British Expansion and 19th-Century Fluctuations

Under British colonial rule, Jamaica’s economy centered on sugar throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries, with cacao remaining an important secondary crop. By the early 1800s, Jamaica was known for producing premium “Creole” cacao (from the Criollo variety), prized for its delicate flavor. However, policy shifts and market forces in the mid-19th century hindered cacao’s growth. In the 1850s, the British government imposed high import tariffs on cocoa, making Jamaican exports less attractive, while the removal of sugar tariffs in 1846 further destabilized the plantation economy. Planters responded by prioritizing sugar and other staples, leading to stagnation in cacao planting. This coincided with a period of relatively low global demand for Caribbean cocoa, as European chocolate production had not yet fully industrialized and alternative supplies were limited.

By the late 19th century, circumstances shifted in cacao’s favor. As the sugar market weakened—partly due to competition from European beet sugar—Jamaican planters sought to diversify. Beginning around 1870, many estates replanted cocoa as a replacement for sugarcane, sparking a cacao resurgence. This era, following the abolition of slavery in 1834, saw small farmers and peasant cultivators enter cocoa production, as cacao could be grown on hillside plots and required less capital than sugar estates. Within decades of Emancipation, cacao had become integral to the rural economy, grown by peasant farmers across various parishes, often intercropped with bananas and other crops. Jamaican cocoa benefited from strong demand as Victorian Britain’s chocolate industry expanded in the late 19th century.

A notable development was the involvement of British chocolate manufacturers such as Rowntree & Co. In the 1890s, Rowntree acquired several former sugar plantations in Jamaica and converted them to cocoa estates. By 1904, Rowntree’s Caribbean operations employed hundreds of Jamaican and imported laborers under British management, modernizing cultivation and fermentation practices. By World War I, Rowntree’s estates had become the largest exporters of Jamaican cocoa, shipping exclusively to the UK for chocolate production. This era marked a high point in the integration of Jamaica’s cacao growers with British chocolate makers and cemented Jamaica’s status as a significant origin for fine cocoa.

Early 20th-Century Boom and Collapse

The early 20th century brought a true boom for Jamaica’s cacao industry. Between the 1920s and 1930s, annual cocoa production on the island skyrocketed, reaching between 25,000 and 35,000 tons per year. This output was enormous by Jamaica’s historical standards, far eclipsing any earlier period. Several factors contributed to this boom.

• First, disease devastated the banana industry (notably the Panama Disease outbreak affecting Gros Michel bananas in the 1910s–20s), prompting many farmers to turn to cocoa as an alternative export.
• Second, global demand for cocoa was rising as chocolate became a mass consumer product in Europe and North America. Jamaican cocoa – much of it of the fine-flavour Trinitario type by this time – was well positioned to command a premium in these markets.

During this cocoa boom, Jamaica was a notable cocoa producer in the British Empire, though still smaller than emerging West African producers. Cocoa joined sugar, bananas, and coffee as a pillar of Jamaica’s export economy. The economic significance was evident: by the 1930s, cocoa exports earned substantial foreign exchange and provided livelihoods for thousands of small farmers. However, this boom was short-lived. Major challenges in the 1930s led to a collapse of the cacao industry’s fortunes. The Great Depression depressed cocoa prices globally, making it difficult for Jamaican producers to turn a profit. Rowntree & Co., which had spearheaded the early-century expansion, faced ongoing difficulties such as pest/disease issues, high labor costs, and management problems on its estates. Ultimately, Rowntree withdrew from Jamaica by the early 1930s, selling off or abandoning its plantations. Without that capital and guaranteed market, Jamaica’s cocoa sector contracted. By the late 1930s, production had fallen dramatically from its peak. Many smallholders shifted focus back to bananas (which recovered with disease-resistant varieties) or other crops, while some cocoa plantations were left neglected.

Thus, the spectacular growth of Jamaica’s cacao industry in the 1920s was followed by a steep decline. Cacao had proven to be a boom-and-bust crop, sensitive to global market swings and local agronomic challenges. Heading into the mid-20th century, Jamaica’s once-flourishing cocoa industry needed restructuring and support to survive.

Post-War Developments and Government Intervention

In the mid-20th century, efforts were made to stabilize and revitalize cacao production in Jamaica. After World War II, colonial agricultural authorities and local experts recognized the need to improve farming practices and support growers. By the late 1940s, Jamaica’s Department of Agriculture had initiated programs to rehabilitate cocoa plantations and introduce better cultivation techniques (such as proper pruning, pest control, and fermentation methods). Additionally, new higher-yielding and disease-resistant cacao varieties were imported for trial. For example, starting in the 1940s, Jamaica brought in selected Trinitario hybrids and Amazonian Forastero clones from research stations in Trinidad, St. Vincent, and elsewhere. These varieties aimed to replace aging or disease-susceptible trees and boost productivity. By the 1950s, experimental plots and farmer training had laid the groundwork for a more modern cocoa sector.

Formation of the Cocoa Industry Board

A major milestone was the establishment of the Cocoa Industry Board in 1957. Under the Cocoa Industry Board Act (1957), this government body was created to regulate and support the industry. The Cocoa Industry Board’s functions included:

• promoting the interests and efficiency of the cocoa industry,
• supporting its development and the welfare of farmers, and
• securing favorable arrangements for buying, marketing, and exporting cocoa.

In practice, the Board acted as a central marketing agent – purchasing wet cocoa beans from farmers, overseeing fermentation and drying at centralized fermentaries, and then exporting the cured beans. This guaranteed farmers a market and helped maintain quality standards. The Board’s formation reflected the Jamaican government’s recognition that cacao, though diminished from its heyday, was still a valuable export that warranted official support (much like sugar and coffee).

When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, the cocoa industry was a shadow of its former self, but still contributed to the agricultural sector. In 1962, Jamaica’s cocoa production was about 2,789 tons. This was only roughly 10% of what it had been in the 1920s boom, yet it was a stable output after the declines of the 1940s–50s. Through the 1960s, however, production continued to stagnate or slowly fall. Farmers faced persistent challenges: old trees, Black Pod disease and other fungal issues, and competition from cheaper West African cocoa. Many young Jamaicans were also less interested in tree-crop farming, leading to labor shortages on cocoa farms. The Cocoa Industry Board and government launched occasional initiatives to spur growth – for instance, distributing hybrid seedlings and promoting cocoa planting on idle lands – but with limited impact initially.

Late 20th-Century Peaks and Decline

The late 1970s and 1980s saw a modest resurgence in Jamaica’s cocoa fortunes. Thanks to better pest control and renewed extension support, production began rising. By 1984, annual output had recovered to around 2,812 tons, roughly back to the early 1960s level. This improvement culminated in 1987, when Jamaica’s cocoa production peaked at 3,186 tons – the highest in decades. The late 1980s peak can be attributed to several factors:

• the maturation of post-war hybrid varieties,
• relatively favorable world cocoa prices,
• and successful programs to replant cocoa in traditional growing areas like St. Mary, Clarendon, and Portland.

Notably, 1987’s record output demonstrated that with proper attention, Jamaica’s cocoa industry could still be viable (albeit far below the huge volumes of major producers).

However, nature intervened in 1988. In September of that year, Hurricane Gilbert – a powerful Category 3 storm – struck Jamaica and caused massive damage to agriculture islandwide. The cocoa sector was hit hard: hurricane-force winds uprooted or snapped countless cocoa trees and destroyed infrastructure. The following year, cocoa production fell by about 50% compared to 1987. Although the cocoa tree is somewhat resilient (many trees sprouted new growth and there are two harvest seasons in Jamaica, which helped mitigate losses), the devastation was enough to push the industry back into decline. Despite post-hurricane recovery projects – including replanting programs under a Hillside Agriculture Project in the early 1990s – Jamaica never again reached the production levels of the late 1980s. The 1990s and 2000s saw cocoa output on a gradual downward trend. Aging farmers and trees, recurring storms, and limited investment all took a toll.

By the 2010s, Jamaica’s once-significant cocoa industry was struggling to survive. In 2016, a new blow hit: Frosty Pod Rot, a devastating fungal disease (Moniliophthora roreri), was discovered on Jamaican cocoa farms for the first time. This disease, which had spread through Latin America, can wipe out entire cocoa crops if not contained. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cocoa Industry Board moved swiftly to quarantine and treat affected areas in Clarendon and St. Mary, announcing strict measures to contain the outbreak. While those efforts may have slowed the spread, the disease added to farmers’ woes.

Current Status and Revival Efforts

Today, Jamaica’s cacao industry is vastly smaller than it once was, but not without hope. Annual production in recent years has been extremely low – falling from around 350 tonnes a year to roughly 100 tonnes in the early 2020s. This is a precipitous drop, making Jamaica a minor player in global cocoa by volume. (For context, the nearby Dominican Republic produces on the order of 65,000–85,000 tonnes of cocoa annually, and even smaller islands like Trinidad surpass Jamaica’s output.) The collapse is attributable to the cumulative challenges of past decades: lack of scale, aging plantations, diseases and hurricanes, and farmers shifting to easier or more profitable crops. In 2018, the Jamaican government dissolved the old Cocoa Industry Board and folded its functions into a new umbrella agency – the Jamaica Agricultural Commodities Regulatory Authority (JACRA) – which also oversees coffee and spices. JACRA and the Ministry of Agriculture have since increased training and support for cocoa farmers, focusing on tackling diseases (like Frosty Pod) and improving post-harvest quality. For example, extensive pruning and spraying programs were undertaken on hundreds of acres to combat the fungus, and strict protocols now govern the movement of cocoa pods to prevent spread.

Recognizing that Jamaica cannot compete on volume, stakeholders have pivoted to competing on quality and uniqueness. Jamaican cocoa is classified as “fine or flavour” cocoa, prized in gourmet chocolate-making. In fact, 95% of Jamaica’s cocoa exports are recognized as fine/flavour cocoa by the ICCO, placing it among the elite cocoa origins of the world. This means Jamaican beans have the nuanced flavor profile (fruit, floral, nutty notes) that high-end craft chocolate makers seek. The country’s cocoa is often organic or grown without intensive chemicals, adding to its appeal.

Cocoa beans alongside a Jamaican single-origin chocolate bar. Jamaica’s focus today is on adding value to its cocoa rather than exporting bulk beans. An emerging crop of local entrepreneurs are producing bean-to-bar chocolate and other cocoa-based products right on the island. For example, Pure Chocolate Jamaica, an Ocho Rios–based company, has gained international acclaim for its single-origin dark chocolates made from locally sourced cocoa. In 2023, Pure Chocolate Jamaica won a prestigious Cacao of Excellence Gold Award for the quality of its cocoa beans (Central American & Caribbean category). The company’s chocolate bars have also earned multiple awards in global competitions. These achievements demonstrate that Jamaican cacao, though limited in quantity, can rank among the world’s best in quality. Other artisans, such as One/One Cacao and Jamaica’s Cocoa Farmers’ cooperatives, are similarly crafting premium chocolates, cocoa teas, and value-added products that highlight the island’s rich cocoa heritage.

Consumers on the island have always enjoyed cocoa in local delicacies – about one-third of Jamaica’s cocoa output has traditionally been consumed domestically in the form of chocolate beverages (the traditional “hot cocoa tea”), instant drink mixes, and confectioneries. The push now is to expand these local industries and develop an export niche for Jamaican-branded cocoa products. The government and private sector are collaborating in this effort. JACRA provides technical support and helps facilitate exports of specialty cocoa and chocolates. There is talk of “chocolate tourism” as well – echoing the island’s coffee tours – where visitors can tour cocoa farms and boutique chocolate factories.

Looking ahead, Jamaica’s cacao industry faces an uphill battle to increase its scale. Farms must recover or replant to replace lost acreage, and younger farmers need incentives to engage in cocoa cultivation. Government policy will be crucial: Jamaica may look to models like the Dominican Republic or Trinidad, where strong state support (financing, research, marketing assistance) has revitalized the cocoa sector. Encouraging signs include ongoing projects to rehabilitate farms and new financing for farmers to expand cacao plantings, especially in traditional cocoa-growing parishes. There is also a regional approach, with Caribbean-wide cocoa organizations sharing resources to fight diseases and promote “Caribbean Fine Cocoa” as a brand.

Conclusion

In summary, the history of Jamaica’s cacao industry is one of resilience and reinvention. From its introduction by Spanish settlers in the 1600s, to a world-renowned export in the eighteenth century, to the massive boom and bust of the early 1900s, cacao has been woven into Jamaica’s agricultural tapestry. While the industry declined to a fraction of its former size, Jamaica’s cocoa legacy endures through its reputation for quality. Today, by focusing on fine-flavour cacao and artisanal chocolate, Jamaica is carving out a sustainable niche in the global market – much as it has done with its Blue Mountain coffee. Jamaican cacao may never rival the volume of West Africa’s, but its rich flavor and storied history ensure it remains a cherished part of the island’s heritage and economic future.