A Chronology of Important Events in Jamaica's History
1670
The Treaty of Madrid
The Treaty of Madrid officially ended the war between Jamaica and Spain that begun in 1654, and in which England had conquered Jamaica. It was signed on July 18, 1670 "for the settlement of all disputes in America" and begun the formal acknowledgement and recognition of England's sovereignty over Jamaica and also opened up trade between the two countries.
The constant threat of a Spanish invasion of the island and harassment of ships had been a major deterrent for the settlement of the island. So, with Spain no longer a threat, the island began to see growthin its economy. New investments beghan flowing into island, along with new settlers from England and other parts of the British Empire.
The treaty also had a significant impact on piracy. Under the terms of the treaty, England agreed to suppress piracy in the Caribbean, and in return, Spain agreed to permit English ships freedom of movement. In the years following the treaty, the English navy and coast guard began cracking down on piracy and public attitudes towards piracy began to change; pirates were increasingly seen as criminals rather than heroes.
In the years following his appointment as Admiral in 1668, Henry Morgan's raids became more daring and successful. Emboldened by these triumphs, he set his sights on Panama City, a major hub of Spain's American empire. He assembled a large force of buccaneers in 1670, and embarked on a daring expedition to capture the city. His victory in January 1671, was decisive and Panama City fell to the buccaneers. Amidst the looting, a devastating fire consumed much of the city.
It is not clear if Morgan was aware that a peace treaty had been signed between England and Spain in July 1670, rendering his attack on Panama an act of unauthorized aggression. Regardless, the raid's destruction and violation of the treaty enraged the Spanish crown and embarrassed the English government, leading to his arrest upon his return to Jamaica.
Modyford was recalled to England in 1671, and held briefly under house arrest due to his support of privateering activities, which had become a diplomatic liability. However, he was eventually released and exonerated, returning to Jamaica where he lived out his days as a respected planter.
The decline of piracy was a complex process with many contributing factors. Piracy did not disappear entirely, but it declined significantly and over the course of ensuing years many pirates were captured and executed. The Treaty of Madrid was a major turning point in this process. By the early 1700s, piracy was a shadow of its former self bringing an end to the Golden Age of Piracy.
1672
Henry Morgan Arrested, The Formation of The Royal African Company, Jamaica Becomes a Busy Slave Market
Henry Morgan was arrested upon his return to Jamaica, in April 1672 and sent to England to face charges. Although initially imprisoned, his popularity and the shifting political landscape in England led to his eventual release and pardon. In a surprising turn of events, he was knighted by King Charles II in 1674 and appointed Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica, where he lived out his days as a wealthy and respected planter.
The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa, led by the King's brother, James, that had been formed in 1660 when King Charles II was restored to the throne and had collapsed in 1667 under mounting debt, re-emerged in 1672. It was given a new royal charter and a new name, the Royal African Company (RAC).
The Royal African Company, formed in 1672, was granted a monopoly of the British slave trade. Their ships sailed from Bristol, Liverpool and London to West Africa, operating from military forts based along the coastline from Cape Sallee, now known as Morocco, to Cape of Good Hope (now South Africa). From 1680 to 1686, the company transported an average of 5,000 slaves per year, with the company's initials branded on their chests, most of which were shipped to colonies in the Caribbean and Virginia.
Jamaica became one of the world's busiest slave markets, with a thriving smuggling trade to Spanish America. African slaves soon outnumbered Europeans 5 to 1. Jamaica became one of Britain's most valuable agricultural colonies during this period. Agiculture production swelled with increasing numbers of processing centres for sugar, indigo, and cacao although a plant disease destroyed much of the cacao crop in 1670–71.
Colonists formed a local legislature, an early step toward self-government, although its members represented only a small fraction of the wealthy elite.
1692
The 1692 Port Royal Earthquake
Port Royal became the busiest trading center of the British West Indies and was known throughout the New World for its wealth and debauchery. It rivaled Boston, Massachusetts in population and trade in the late 17th century.
Merchants and artisans flowed in, chasing the potential for success catering to the needs and desires of the pirates. The town continued to grow in strength even as piracy began to wane. England and landowers in Jamaica reaped the benefits from regualr trade with Spain and a stable economy based on agriculture. There were over 8,000 inhabitants living in fine brick houses of two and three stories in the town that had become known as the "richest and wickedest city in the New World."
On June 7th 1692, the Rector of Port Royal had gone to a meeting place where merchants gathered for drinks to meet with his friend, the President of the Council who was filling the role as Governor until a new Governor was appointed. This was meant to be a quick meeting before heading over to have dinner with another friend, but he was encouraged to stay a while to have a drink of wormwood wine. This was a fortuitous decision, because as he described it in his own words, he felt the ground rolling under his feet. "Lord, Sir, What is that"? he asked, to which his friend replied, "It's an Earthquake, be not afraid, it will soon be over". But it increased and they heard the church tower fall, so they ran to save themselves. As he ran towards Morgan's Fort thinking it was the most secure place, he described seeing the earth open and swallow a multitude of people, and the sea rose above the fortications and rushed towards him an others. He further documented that the family with which he had planned to have dinner, sunk into the earth on the first convulsion and then into the sea, along with his friend and his wife and family. "Had I been there", he reported, "I would have been been lost".
The earthquake caused the entire western end of the town, about two thirds of the city, to sink into the Caribbean Sea along with many inhabitants. The account above is taken from a series of 2 letters that were written by Port Royal's Rector, who survived the earthquake. His account describes the event as it happened and the disaster it caused across the island over the ensuing days. He recalls the stench of the bodies as they began rotting; dogs eating the heads of some of those who were swallowed by the earthquake leaving only their heads exposed; and the destruction across the island and the diseases that followed.
The 2 letters were published in a newspaper in England, the content of which can be read here .
For an archaelogical reconstruction of what Port Royal looked like before and after: .
The Creation of Kingston
Two weeks after the earthquake, the government bought 200 acres of land from Sir William Beeston to build a town called Kingston for the resettlement of the Port Royal earthquake victims. Temporary huts were to be constructed with a plan to eventually sell plots on the condition that a home would be built within three years.
Kingston's Original Boundary
The purchased land was called Colonel Barry's Hog Crawle, named after its original owner, Colonel Samuel Barry who came into its possession in 1664. He later sold it to Sir William Beeston, who the government approached for its purchase. William Beeston who later became Governor of the island, was away from the island at the time so the transaction totaling £1000, was handled by his lawyer. The plans for Kingston were developed by John Goffe, a surveyor, and submitted to the Assembly for approval.
Goffe's design for the town of Kingston was a grid system consisting of streets and lanes running perpendicular to each other. The boundaries of the town extended one mile from the southern harbor from Port Royal Street to the northern edge of North Street and half-mile across from East Street to West Street. King and Queen streets were the widest of the streets. They were both 66ft wide with King Street running north to south and Queen Street running across it from east to west giving the effect of dividing the town into four quadrants. A quadrangle was placed at the intersection of the streets to host a Parade Ground, military barracks and a church.
The street located one block north of the Parade Ground was named Beeston Street, a tribute to William Beeston, the person who sold it. And, one block south was Barry Street, a tribute to Colonel Samuel Barry, the original owner of the tract of land.
1694
The French Attacks Port Royal
The French, led by Admiral Du Casse, launched a devastating attack on Port Royal. They plundered the town and inflicted heavy casualties. The attack was a result of longstanding tensions between France and England during the Nine Years' War. The raid left Port Royal in ruins.
Following the attack on Port Royal, the French targeted, St. Jago de la Vega (now Spanish Town), the island's administrative capital. They briefly captured the town but were soon repelled by English forces.
After the 1692 earthquake, which destroyed Port Royal, and left the island vulnerable to attack, there was concern that the French could attack the Liguanea Plain from the east. It was thought that they could avoid the guns of Port Royal which were slowly being rebuilt, and land troops to the east on the coastline of St Thomas.
In 1694, the French used this exact method to attack. The English, however, were forewarned by a Capt. Elliott who escaped by canoe from St. Domingue (what is now the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic) where he had been imprisoned by the French. The English braced themselves by refortifying Port Royal and a fort that stood where Rockfort now stands. Some three thousand French troops, led by Admiral Du Casse, anchored at Cow Bay, just north of the mouth of the Yallahs River and began to ravage the eastern parishes before regrouping and heading to Clarendon. A mere 250 Jamaican militia met them at Carlisle Bay and turned them back in an impressive display of bravery. The French, lost close to seven hundred men. Clarendon was saved from the fate of the eastern parishes which had suffered severe property damage, and many lives were spared because the Jamaican inhabitants had removed themselves from that area prior to the arrival of the French.
1700s
Turn of a New Century
By the 18th century, Jamaica was responsible for producing approximately 20% of the global sugar supply but its best years were yet to come. The 57 sugar estates on the island in 1673, grew to nearly 430 by the end of Maroon War in 1940. Jamaica's sugar production reached its apogee in the 18th century, dominating the local economy and depending increasingly on the slave trade as a source of cheap labor. Many owners of the major plantations lived in England and entrusted their operations to appointed overseers. Small landowners had it more diffcult, rising production costs cut into profits. Many of these smaller landowners, diversified into coffee, cotton, and indigo production. By the late 18th century coffee rivaled sugar as an export crop. Jamaica's slave population continued to rise, and the practice of slavery creates enormous economic bounty for the English, at terrible cost to the enslaved. Civil unrest increased as the enslaved people continued to be subjected to atrocities. The possibility of invasion from France and Spain remained a constant threat.
1703
Port Royal Destroyed by Fire
Port Royal was again struck by disaster on January 9, 1703, when a raging fire ignited in a warehouse, quickly engulfing the town. Fueled by large quantities of gunpowder and flammable materials, and exacerbated by narrow streets and tightly packed buildings, the inferno was unstoppable. The fire spread rapidly, leaping from building to building, leaving a trail of destruction in its wake. By midnight, Port Royal lay in ruins. A lone boat master's log recorded the event succinctly: "Port Royal burnt, all but the Castle."
In the aftermath of the devastating blaze, a contentious proposal emerged to relocate all commerce to the burgeoning city of Kingston. Citing Kingston's perceived health and safety advantages, merchants favored the move. However, seamen and sailors, argued vehemently against it, fearing the difficulties their ships would face navigating Kingston's harbor. The debate raged on, with both sides fiercely defending their positions. Ultimately, the proposal was abandoned, leaving both cities to develop in parallel.
Port Royal, however, never truly recovered from the devastating blow. Though some rebuilding efforts were made, the town never regained its former commercial glory. A series of devastating hurricanes in 1712, 1722, 1726, and 1744 further crippled the town, extinguishing any hope of a full recovery. As the 18th century progressed, Port Royal's role shifted, gradually transforming it into the principal British naval center in the Caribbean. The once-bustling port city, scarred by fire and battered by storms, found new purpose in serving the British navy, leaving its days as a thriving commercial center behind.
1718
Port Antonio Raided by French Privateers
In 1718, French privateers launched a brazen assault on the Jamaican port of Port Antonio, seizing English merchant vessels and looting their valuable cargo. The act was not an isolated incident but a direct consequence of the tensions and rivalry between France and England, which had been ignited during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714).
The War was a pivotal European conflict triggered by the succession crisis following the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in 1700. The primary contenders were Philip of Anjou, a grandson of King Louis XIV of France, and Archduke Charles of Austria. The conflict embroiled major European powers, with France and Spain forming one faction, and opposed by a coalition led by England, the Dutch Republic, and Austria.
Despite officially concluding in 1714, the war left a legacy of lingering animosity and simmering competition. The use of privateers, essentially state-sanctioned pirates -- private individuals authorized by the government to attack enemy ships) -- was a common tactic employed by both sides to continue harassing and weakening their rival without resorting to open war.
The raid on Port Antonio was an example of this lingering animosity. It aimed to undermine England's economic power and disrupt their colonial ambitions in the Caribbean. While the British response was relatively muted, it highlighted the vulnerability of merchant shipping in the region, a constant threat due to piracy and privateering. This raid also underscores the role of privateering as a tool of state-sponsored aggression, blurring the lines between legitimate warfare and outright piracy.
1728
The First Maroon War
The First Maroon War was a pivotal conflict in Jamaican history. It began in 1728 and ended in 1740. The war stemmed from escalating tensions between British and the Maroons, a self-liberated African communities who had settled in Jamaica's mountainous interior.
These Maroons were descendants of Africans enslaved by the Spanish in the 16th century, who later formed autonomous settlements, known as "polinks" or "palenques," in the rugged terrain. Over time, their numbers were augmented with escapees from British-owned plantations seeking refuge in the mountains. There were two main groups on the island, the Windward Maroons in the east of the island occupying territies within the Blue Mountain areas, and the Leeward Maroons in the west in the Cockpit and surrounding mountains.
Skilled in guerrilla tactics and terrain knowledge, the Maroons posed a persistent threat to British plantations with their surprise attacks, ambushes, and hit-and-run maneuvers. In response, the British launched numerous expeditions to suppress the Maroon resistance, but their efforts were largely unsuccessful due to the Maroons' superior knowledge of the terrain and their effective guerrilla tactics.
Phillip Thicknesse, a British military officer and administrator, chronicled these events in his memoirs, offering valuable insights into the conflict's dynamics and the negotiations that led to peace. His accounts provide a deeper understanding of this significant period in Jamaican history and the complex relationship between the Maroons and British colonial society. Excerpts of his memoires with his observations on the strategies employed by both the British and the Maroons, can be found here.
Several key events marked the progression and eventual end of the First Maroon War. Recognizing the futility of their military campaigns, the British began negotiations.
1739 Accompong Treaty: In 1739, the Leeward group, led by Cudjoe, signed a peace treaty with the British without the knowledge or agreement of the Windward Maroons, led by Quao. This caused division and resentment between the two Maroon factions. Ten months months later, Quao was offered a different treaty which he signed in December 1739, but Nanny, another influential Maroon leader within the Windward group, refused, creating the split within the Windward Maroons and prolonging the war.
1740 Winward Treaty: Nanny eventually agreed to the terms of the treaty offered to Quao, formally ending the conflict in 1740.
Jamaica was formally divided into three counties in 1758:
Cornwall: The westernmost county, named after the English county of Cornwall. Middlesex: The central county, named after the English county of Middlesex. Surrey: The easternmost county, named after the English county of Surrey.
The purpose of the division was primarily to facilitate the administration of the judicial system, following the model of the British county court system. However, these counties never held significant administrative power and are now largely historical designations.
While the counties were established in 1758, the island had been divided into parishes since the English took control in 1655. The parishes were the main units of local government and remain so today. There were initially only seven parishes, but the number fluctuated over time until it was finally settled at the current 14 in 1867.
1760
Tacky's Rebellion
In 1760, Jamaica was shaken by a major slave rebellion ignited by the harsh conditions of slavery and the unrelenting desire for freedom. This uprising, led by Tacky, an enslaved man of Akan origin, began on Easter Monday. Tacky and his followers orchestrated a series of attacks targeting plantations and overseers in St. Mary Parish, initially aiming to seize control of Port Maria and gather arms and ammunition.
The rebellion quickly spread to neighboring parishes, sparking hope and defiance among enslaved people across the island. The British authorities, unprepared for the rebellion's scale and intensity, struggled to regain control. They responded with military force, deploying local militias and British troops. They also enlisted the help of some Maroons. While some Maroons viewed the rebellion as a threat to the established order and their autonomy, others were hesitant or had doubts about joining in the suppression. This reluctance stemmed from various factors, including their own history of resistance against British colonial rule and a degree of sympathy with the enslaved population's plight. Nonetheless, those Maroons who did assist played a crucial role in tracking down and capturing Tacky and other rebel leaders, leading to the eventual suppression of the rebellion after months of intense fighting.
The aftermath of Tacky's Rebellion saw increased repression and stricter control over the enslaved population. The British enacted harsher laws, including the "Deficiency Law," which mandated that slave owners whose enslaved people were killed or executed during the rebellion would be financially compensated by the colony. The funds for this compensation were raised through taxes on the enslaved population. While this law was meant to reassure slave owners and discourage them from mistreating their slaves to the point of rebellion, it also effectively punished the entire community for the actions of the rebels, further fueling resentment against the British authorities. Additionally, surveillance and monitoring of enslaved people were intensified to prevent future uprisings.
The rebellion also exposed and exacerbated the existing tensions between various groups in Jamaica, including the British colonists, the Maroons, and the enslaved population. The conflict deepened mistrust and suspicion among these groups, creating a climate of fear and instability that had lasting consequences for the island's social and political landscape.
Source: Tacky's Revolt: The Story of an Atlantic Slave War" by Vincent Brown.
1795
The Second Maroon War (1795-1796)
The treaty between the Maroons and the British, signed at the end of the first Maroon war, began to fray over time and disputes arose over the terms of the treaty. As sugar plantations grew and prospered, they expanded into lands that the Maroons considered their own. The British also imposed restrictions on Maroon activities like hunting and farming, limiting their access to resources and further fueling their discontent. The boundaries of Maroon territories were often unclear and disputed, leading to conflicts with neighboring plantations and settlements.
While both Leeward and Windward Maroon communities experienced tensions with the British due to treaty violations and encroachment on their lands, the Second Maroon War primarily involved the Leeward Maroons, specifically those of Trelawny Town. The role of Accompong Town, another Leeward Maroon community, remains a subject of historical debate. Some accounts suggest that they remained neutral, adhering to the terms of their earlier treaty with the British. Others indicate that they actively sided with the British and fought against their fellow Maroons in Trelawny Town, potentially motivated by pre-existing tensions or a desire to protect their own autonomy. Regardless of their exact role, Accompong's decision had a significant impact on the war's outcome and the complex relationship between the Maroons and the British authorities.
The breaking point that sparked the war, came in 1795 when two Maroons were publicly flogged in Montego Bay, ordered by a British court, for allegedly stealing pigs. This humiliating incident, coupled with existing grievances over land rights and a sense of betrayal, ignited outrage and resentment among the Maroons, ultimately leading to the Second Maroon War.
The outbreak of the war was marked by a series of skirmishes between Maroons and British troops in Trelawny Town (now known as Maroon Town). The Maroons, skilled in guerrilla warfare and intimately familiar with the terrain, launched surprise attacks and ambushes, effectively utilizing the rugged Jamaican landscape to their advantage. The British colonial authorities, facing a formidable enemy, deployed significant military force, including regular troops, militia, and even bloodhounds imported from Cuba.
Despite their superior firepower and resources, the British struggled to adapt to the Maroons' guerrilla tactics, and the war eventually reached a stalemate. Negotiations ensued, and a truce was agreed upon. The exact terms of this truce remain a subject of historical debate. Some sources suggest that the Maroons agreed to surrender their arms and leaders in exchange for amnesty and the promise of continued freedom within their territory, while others indicate that a pledge of allegiance to the British Crown was also required. The fate of the Maroon leaders is particularly unclear, with some accounts suggesting they were promised amnesty and continued leadership, while others indicate that exile or imprisonment was the intended outcome.
Regardless of the specifics of the truce, the new governor of Jamaica, Alexander Lindsay, Earl of Balcarres, under pressure from panicked planters and a hostile Assembly, acted against the spirit of the agreement and deported over 500 Maroons, including men, women, and children, first to Nova Scotia and later to Sierra Leone. This decision was likely driven by a combination of factors, including fear of the Maroons' continued resistance, and a desire to eliminate a potential threat to the colonial order. The deportation of the Maroons stands as a stark reminder of the broken promises and injustices inflicted upon them by the colonial authorities.
Prominent Figures
Colonel Montague James and Leonard Parkinson were key figures on opposing sides during the Second Maroon War.
Colonel Montague James, a seasoned British military leader, found himself at the forefront of the Second Maroon War. Tasked with suppressing the Maroon rebellion, he initially sought a peaceful resolution through negotiation. However, when talks failed, he resorted to military force, employing ruthless tactics such as a scorched-earth policy and the use of bloodhounds to track the Maroons. His methods, though effective in quelling the uprising, were often brutal and indiscriminate, resulting in civilian casualties and the displacement of entire communities. James's actions during the war highlight the complex and often morally ambiguous nature of colonial warfare, where the pursuit of victory could come at a great human cost.
Leonard Parkinson, aka Colonel Parkinson, emerged as a prominent leader of the Trelawny Town Maroons. A skilled military strategist with an intimate knowledge of the Jamaican terrain, Parkinson played a crucial role in organizing and leading the Maroons' guerrilla campaign. He utilized ambushes, surprise attacks, and the natural defenses of the island to counter the British forces' superior firepower. Parkinson also participated in the truce negotiations, advocating for the Maroons' rights and interests. His leadership and tactical brilliance not only made him a formidable adversary but also a symbol of resistance against colonial oppression, inspiring generations of Maroons who sought freedom and autonomy.
